Pharmaceutical Technology

T his method involves exposing the packed materials to radiation for sterilization. There are two types of radiations available for sterilization i.e a) non-ionic and b) ionic radiation. a) Non-ionic radiations are safe to the operator of sterilization, and they are like Ultra Violet radiations, they can be used even at the door entrances to prevent entry of live microbes through the air. b) Ionizing radiation sterilization. They are powerful radiation and very useful for sterilization. The operator needs to protect himself from exposure from these radiations by use of special clothing. Examples: X-rays, γ-rays, etc. Filtration In this method, liquids are filtered through bacterial filters to remove any microbes present. This method is very effective for sterilization of heat sensitive liquids. The chances of clogging and long time duration for the process to happen are drawbacks. For sterilization three types of filters are used: A) Membrane filters: These are thin ...

S terilization is the killing or removal of all microorganisms, including bacterial spores which are highly resistant. Sterilization is an absolute term, i.e. the article must be sterile meaning the absence of all microorganisms. Disinfection is the killing of many, but not all microorganisms. It is a process of reduction of number of contaminating organisms to a level that cannot cause infection, i.e. pathogens must be killed. Some organisms and bacterial spores may survive. Disinfectants are chemicals that are used for disinfection. Disinfectants should be used only on inanimate objects. Antiseptics are mild forms of disinfectants that are used externally on living tissues to kill microorganisms, e.g. on the surface of skin and mucous membranes. Uses of Sterilization 1.   Sterilization for Surgical Procedures: Gloves, aprons, surgical instruments, syringes etc. are to be sterilized. 2.   Sterilization in Microbiological works like preparation of culture...

S taining is the addition of colour or colouring agent to a material or microbial culture to make them more visible. E.g of stains include  Acetocarmine (Semi chon): Reagents: 45% glacial acetic acid … 100 ml Carmine powder … 10 g Preparation: Mix the two; heat up to boiling. Cool, filter and store for future use. 2. Borax Carmine: Reagents: Aqueous borax solution … 4%. Carmine solution … 3%. Alcohol … 70% Preparation: Prepare 2 to 3% carmine solution in 4% aqueous borax solution by boiling for 30 min­utes. Allow to stand for 2 to 3 days with occa­sional stirring. Dilute with equal volume of 70% alcohol. Allow to stand and filter. Stained objects should be washed with alcohol. 3. Delafield’s Haematoxylin: Reagents: Saturated aqueous ammonia solution … 400 ml Haematoxylin … 4 g 90% ethyl alcohol … 25 ml 90% methyl alcohol … 100 ml Glycerine … 10 ml Preparation: Dissolve 4 g haematoxylin in 25 ml 90% ethyl alcohol. Mix the solution ...

TITLE: Microscopy (Using the microscope) The setting up of a microscope is a basic skill of microbiology yet it is rarely mastered. Only when it is done properly can the smaller end of the diversity of life be fully appreciated and its many uses in practical microbiology, from aiding identification to checking for contamination, be successfully accomplished. The amount of magnification of which a microscope is capable is an important feature but it is the resolving power that determines the amount of detail that can be seen. All optical microscopes share the same basic components: The eyepiece is a cylinder containing two or more lenses to bring the image to focus for the eye. The eyepiece is inserted into the top end of the body tube. Eyepieces are interchangeable and many different eyepieces can be inserted with different degrees of magnification. Typical magnification values for eyepieces include 5x, 10x and 2x. In some high-performance microscopes, the optical configuration o...

INCUBATOR In biology, an incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside. Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell biology, microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells. The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater, typically going up to 60 to 65 °C (140 to 150 °F), though some can go slightly higher (generally to no more than 100 °C). The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 °C (99 °F), as these organisms grow well under such conditions. For other organisms used in biological experiments, such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a growth temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) is optimal....